How French works
A sentence is a grammatically self-contained unit containing either a single word or a grammatically related group of words. When written it begins with a capital letter and ends with either a full stop (.), a question mark (?), an exclamation mark (!) or suspension marks (...).
Most sentences are made up of one or more clauses, and these are called major or regular sentences. Some, however, do not conform to this formula, and these are called minor or irregular sentences. Minor sentences include amongst other things one-word sentences (Great!), exclamations (Lovely day!), formulae (Thanks!), commands (Go away!), and interjections (Damn!). Major sentences can be separated into simple and multiple sentences.
A simple sentence is one which contains a single clause. A clause is made up from the five basic elements mentioned in Unit 3. In English these elements can be arranged into seven basic clause types, using the following abbreviations:
| Clause type | Example |
|---|---|
| S + V | Sara teaches |
| S + V + O | Sara teaches adults |
| S + V + C | Sara is a teacher |
| S + V + A | Sara lives in Manchester |
| S + V + Od + Oi | Sara teaches English to adults |
| S + V + Od + C | The Head made Sara course leader |
| S + V + O + A | Sara put the book on the table |
Multiple sentences is the collective term used to describe sentences containing two or more clauses. There are two types of multiple sentence. Compound sentences, in which the clauses are grammatically independent of each other. In these sentences the clauses are called coordinate clauses and are usually linked by the coordinating conjunctions and and but. For example:
He rushed into the house and collected the package.
I came to see you but you weren't in.
And complex sentences, in which one or more of the clauses is grammatically dependent on another clause. In this case the "dependent" clauses are called subordinate clauses, and the "supporting" clause, is called a main clause. For example:
I hope that he will not turn up
main clause = I hope + subordinate clause
subordinate clause = that he will not turn up
She will visit you before she goes home
main clause = she will visit you + subordinate clause
subordinate clause = before she goes home
A subordinate clause can easily be recognized in the fact that it cannot stand on its own to form a complete sentence. For example, in the above sentences, the subordinate clauses that he will not turn up and before she goes home could not form sentences on their own.
Note also that a main clause must always contain a finite verb but a subordinate clause can contain a nonfinite verb only (i.e. a non-conjugated verb form such as an infinitive or participle ). For example:
Being tired of waiting, he went home
main clause = subordinate clause + he went home
subordinate clause = Being tired of waiting
It is important to note that a subordinate clause always expands an element of another clause (or in some cases a phrase). Consequently the subordinate clause should be viewed as a subset of a clause, and not as being separate from it (as are coordinate clauses). This is why they are also referred to as embedded clauses. This idea is best demonstrated by means of a diagram:
For subordinate clauses beginning with the words that in English or que in French, these words are not included in diagram structures.
The subordinate clause can expand any element of the main clause apart from the verb . Its grammatical function can be tested by replacing it with a simpler unit such as a noun or an adjective . For example, the sentence He said that he would be late has the same structure as He said something. Therefore the subordinate clause that he would be late, like the indefinite pronoun something, is a direct object .
There are four different types of subordinate clause :
These in French are always introduced by que:
Il a dit qu’il serait en retard
He said that he would be late
These are introduced by conjunctions other than que on its own:
Il viendra te voir avant que tu ne partes
He'll come and see you before you leave
These are introduced by question words:
Il m'a demandé si j'avais été en retard
He asked me if I had been late
These are introduced by a relative pronoun :
Il y a une femme qui veut te voir
There's a woman who wants to see you
A completive clause, so called because it generally serves to "complement" or "complete" a phrase or clause , is a clause which functions as a noun. (For this reason it can also be referred to as a noun clause, a nominal clause or a substantive clause). For example, in the sentence He said that he would be late, the words that he would be late make up a completive clause.
Completive clauses can have a wide range of grammatical roles. They can act as the subject of a sentence, although this is rare and only occurs in formal language:
Qu'il dise la vérité ne fait aucune doute
That he is telling the truth is not in doubt
The completive clause as direct object is much more common:
Je crains qu'il ne soit trop tard
I'm afaid it's too late
Les soeurs se sont dit qu'elles ne se marieraient jamais
The sisters said to each other that they would never marry
The subordinate clause can also act as indirect object . In this case ce is inserted between the preposition à or de and que:
Je ne m'attendais pas à ce qu'il vienne
I didn't expect him to come
J'ai profité de ce qu'il était en retard pour finir mon devoir
Since he was late, I took the opportunity to finish my homework
Additionally the completive clause can act as a complement :
La vérité est qu'il n'est pas très sérieux
The truth is he's not very reliable
An adverbial clause is a clause that functions as an adverbial , that is it gives information about the circumstances of a verb’s action. For example, in the sentence He will come to see you before he leaves, the words before he leaves make up an adverbial clause.
In French, adverbial clauses are generally introduced by conjunctions other than que used on its own. The conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses can be classified according to semantic criteria:
| Notion | Conjunction |
|---|---|
| Cause | parce que, puisque, étant donné que |
| Result | tant que, si bien que, de sorte que, à tel point que |
| Goal | pour que, de peur que, de sorte que, de façon que |
| Time | quand, lorsque, avant que, après que, aussitôt que, dès que |
| Condition | si, au cas où, à condition que, pourvu que, selon que |
| Opposition | bien que, quoique, à moins que, alors que, tandis que |
| Comparison | comme, à mesure que, ainsi que, moins que, aussi que, plus que |
As has been mentioned, whilst a sentence and / or main clause must contain a finite verb, a subordinate clause can be complete with a nonfinite verb. These nonfinite clauses are generally classed as adverbial clauses because they tend to throw light on the circumstances in which the action of the main clause verb takes place:
Je me suis fait mal en tombant dans l'escalier
I hurt myself falling on the stairs
Elle a fermé la fenêtre pour ne pas avoir froid
She closed the window so as not to be cold
N'ayant plus rien à faire, il est parti chez lui
Having nothing else to do, he went home
Le repas fini, ils ont fait la vaisselle
When the meal was over, they did the washing up
These involve questions being expressed in reported speech . For example, in the sentence He wondered how long she would be, the words how long she would be make up an indirect interrogative clause.
They are similar to affirmations made in reported speech (such as He said that he would be late) in that they act as the direct object of the main clause . They differ from these, however, in that instead of being introduced by that in English or que in French, they are introduced by a question word. In French this can be an interrogative adjective (si, quand, comment, où, combien), adverb (quel) or pronoun (qui, lequel). For example:
Je me demande s’il gagnera
I wonder if he'll win
Je me demande quel prix il gagnera
I wonder what prize he'll win
Je me demande qui gagnera / lequel gagnera
I wonder who / which will win
A relative clause is a type of subordinate clause giving information about (usually) a directly preceding noun or pronoun within the main clause . For example, in the sentence Sara, who lives in Manchester, is a teacher, the words who lives in Manchester make up a relative clause. The relative clause is linked (or “related”) to the main clause by means of a relative pronoun , such as who, that, which or whose in English, or qui, que, lequel or dont in French.